Although teak logs harvested from native forests, principally in India and Myanmar, are major contributors to the global timber trade as well as to domestic markets, the supply of forest logs from these countries is becoming progressively restricted. In Thailand, harvesting of teak, along with other native forest species, has been prohibited since 1989, while in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, supplies have been severely constrained pending a reassessment of harvest potentials. Plantations are an important potential source of timber to narrow the growing gap between supply and demand for teak.

HISTORY
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Apart from the introduction of teak in Java, Indonesia, the first teak plantation was started in 1680 in Sri Lanka. Teak planting in India began in the 1840s and increased to significant levels from 1865 onwards. Teak plantations using the “taungya” method, in which a forest crop is established in temporary association with agricultural crops, were initiated in Myanmar in 1856 and in Indonesia around 1880.

Teak was first introduced outside Asia in Nigeria in 1902 (Horne, 1966), with seed first from India and subsequently from Myanmar. Planting in what is now eastern Ghana (formerly Togoland) started around 1905 (Kadambi, 1972). A small plantation of teak was established in Côte d’Ivoire in 1929 from plantation-grown seeds obtained from Togoland.

The first teak plantation in tropical America was established in Trinidad and Tobago in 1913 (Keogh, 1979) with seed from Myanmar. Planting of teak in Honduras, Panama and Costa Rica started between 1927 and 1929.

Statistics on the historical progress of teak plantation establishment are incomplete, but it is clear that up to 1950 the major area under teak plantation was in Java, Indonesia, with about 300 000 ha. There was a gradual increase in the area of teak plantations through the 1950s and 1960s to an estimated 900 000 ha in 1970 (Kadambi, 1972; Tewari, 1992). The pace of teak planting further accelerated in the late 1970s, mainly as a result of financial support provided by external donor agencies. The total area of teak plantation increased to 1.7 million ha in 1980 (Pandey, 1983) and 2.2 million ha in 1990 (FAO, 1995). More than 90 percent of the 1990 total was located in Asia.

In Myanmar, the area of teak plantations, the first of which may have been established about the year 1700, is estimated to be 139,000 ha, making plantations an important supplement to supplies from native forests.

Establishment of plantations in India commenced in 1842. From that year until 1862, more than 1 million teak plants were raised for plantation development. The area planted is now about 980,000 ha.

In Thailand, pioneer plantations of teak were established from 1906, and teak plantations currently cover approximately 159,000 ha. Thailand has a very heavy dependence on imports of plantation-grown teak for its rapidly growing export-oriented furniture manufacturing industry. This industry employs approximately 400,000 people, is responsible for export earnings of approximately US$400 million and since 1945, in conjunction with Scandinavian designs and manufacturing techniques, has done much to popularize teak furniture on a global basis.

Teak plantations in Indonesia are largely located in Java and currently exceed 700,000 ha. Teak was probably introduced into Java in the fourteenth century, although some reports suggest that its introduction may have been as early as the seventh century. Harvests from Javanese teak plantations today support a rapidly expanding furniture manufacturing industry, the products of which are increasingly directed to export markets. Production of teak occurs in two sectors: one is a free market and the other is controlled by a State enterprise company, Perum Perhutani. Perhutani’s teak production and processing activities are well organized and extensive, involving the provision of planting stock, consumable inputs such as fertilizers, and specific advice to assist landholders with the establishment and management of their teak plantations. In return for these inputs, Perhutani is granted the rights to the logs harvested from the areas concerned. Management of teak plantations in Java, Indonesia, is mostly controlled by Perum Perhutani, a State enterprise company, which assists forest farmers in return for the rights to the logs harvested from the areas concerned.

Cultivation of teak in Malaysia is a relatively new undertaking. The total areas planted in peninsular Malaysia and Sabah are estimated to be approximately 2,000 ha each (Asian Timber, 1996; Tee, 1995). Until recently, it was widely believed that teak grew best in the drier states in the north of peninsular Malaysia and it was not promoted in other parts of the country which are hotter and wetter. However, results from those areas now indicate that they are equally suited to the production of teak, and this has generated considerable interest in the establishment of teak plantations on a large scale. The establishment of teak plantations in Malaysia is being actively promoted by the Department of Forestry, the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), the Federal Land Development Authorities, other government agencies and the private sector. These commercial planting programs aim to achieve mean annual increments of 8 m3 or more per hectare per year. Developments are occurring on an industrial plantation scale (>100 ha) as well as on small holdings. Small holder planting is being vigorously promoted as an enterprise requiring low labor inputs and offering potentially high returns.

Elsewhere in Asia, teak has been established in Bangladesh (~73,000 ha), Sri Lanka (~38,000 ha), China (~9,000 ha), the Philippines (~8,000 ha), the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (~3,000 ha), Nepal (~2,000 ha) and Viet Nam (~1,500 ha).

In Africa, teak has been established in plantations in Nigeria (~70,000 ha), Côte d’Ivoire (~52,000 ha), Sierra Leone, the United Republic of Tanzania (~3,000 ha) and Togo (~4,500 ha). Plantations of teak are also widespread in the tropical Americas, where it was introduced early in the twentieth century. Teak plantations now cover an estimated 33,000 ha, spread mainly across Costa Rica, Trinidad and Tobago, Panama, El Salvador, Colombia, Guatemala, Venezuela and Ecuador.

In the Pacific region, teak was introduced by the Germans to Papua New Guinea in the early 1900s and some 3 500 ha of plantations were subsequently established. Plantation teak was also introduced to Fiji and the Solomon Islands. Teak has also been planted in northern Australia at trial levels.

Although it is widely planted, plantation-grown teak has not, until recently, had a significant impact on supplies of industrial round-wood in the global timber trade except for some short-term log exports from Papua New Guinea and Ecuador.

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PLANTATIONS
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Teak is known to perform well in plantations under favorable conditions. In this characteristic it contrasts with some of the more commercially known and valuable tropical hardwood species. For example, many of the species that make up the timber wealth of the African tropical forests (e.g. species of the Meliaceae family, the African mahoganies Khaya ivorensis, K. anthoteca and K. grandi-folia, and Entandophragma spp.) have proved unamenable to growing in plantations for reasons such as exceedingly slow growth, susceptibility to mortality in establishment on cleared land (being climax rather than pioneer species) or vulnerability to pests and diseases. Mahogany (Swietenia macro-phylla) is one of the few other luxury hardwoods that is extensively grown in plantations. It seems likely that there will be a significant divergence in future timber supply potential between those species amenable to plantation and those largely dependent on an established natural forest habitat.

Mixed plantations of teak with other tree species are generally less susceptible than pure teak plantations to soil erosion and pest and disease risks. Pure teak plantations are susceptible to defoliating pests, particularly when understorey growth is suppressed and site conditions are suboptimal. Teak begins flowering and seeding at a young age, about 20 years from seedling and about ten years from coppice

Teak is relative to other species is easily established in plantations and because of the enduring global demand for products from teak it has good prospects as a plantation species. These prospects are boosted by the rapidly developing trend of replacing lumber with reconstituted panels (Loke, 1996). Sliced veneer of teak as a lay-on for reconstituted panels is assured of a demand for its value in enhancing the potential for panels to substitute for lumber in a widening variety of applications.

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SOIL
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Teak can grow in a variety of soils. The quality of its growth, however, depends on the depth, structure, porosity, drainage and moisture-holding capacity of the soil. It develops best on deep, well-drained and fertile soils, especially on volcanic substrata such as igneous and metamorphic soils or on alluvial soils of various origins. The optimal soil pH is between 6.5 and 7.5. The calcium content of the soil is also an important factor; calcium deficiency in the soil results in stunted growth of teak (Kaosa-ard, 1981).

Studies at FRIM indicate that good management techniques may be able to improve the performance of teak on problem soils.

Growth Performance on Some Soils in Peninsular Malaysia

Unmanaged Stands of Teak

Soil types were found to have a significant influence on teak growth if left unmanaged (Table 3). Better growth was observed on the Penambang series (riverine soils) and the Serdang series (sandstone-derived soils) than on the shallow and moderately deep stony shale soils of the Kuah and Batu Lapan series, respectively. Growth of teak crops on the laterite soils of the Gajah Mati and Pokok Sena series was drastically (30 percent) lower than on the Penambang and Serdang series.

These results seem to indicate that teak cannot do well on laterite, compacted and shallow subsoils if unattended after planting. However, rubber plantations have succeeded on such soils when management has included adequate soil preparation such as ploughing and good silvicultural practices. This suggests that if intensive management practices and good fertilization programs are followed, it is probable that teak could do well in such soil types. Experiments have now been initiated on growth and management of teak on poor soils.

TABLE 3. Growth of Mature Stands of Teak on Various Soils, Unmanaged Soil Series Origin Year Planted Spacing (m) Total Height (m) Diameter (cm)

Serdang Sandstone 1965 2.4×2.4 31.38 35.44
Penambang Alluvial 1966 2.4×2.4 31.34 34.60
Batu Lapan Lateritic Shale 1966 2.4×2.4 18.12

26.20
Kuah shale 1965 2.4×3.0 17.24 23.50
Gajah Mati Laterite 1962 2.4×2.4 18.44 24.28
Pokok Sena Laterite 1963 2.4×3.0 20.24 25.44
Source: Amir Husni (1998).

New Plantings Under Plantation Management Regimes

Early growth results in trials to evaluate optimally managed teak on various soil types and under various ecological conditions support the suggestion that teak can perform well on problem soils if properly managed. To reduce costs and to ensure that optimal silvicultural practices would be followed, these trials have been carried out on small-scale farmers’ plots under an arrangement termed “smart partnership”: farmers benefit from free advice, good-quality seedlings, agricultural inputs from FRIM and the returns from the final crop harvest, while FRIM in turn benefits from the small holder’s labor for the management of the plot and access to the growth data.

As shown in Table 4, the growth results of the young plantings on some of the problematic soils appear to be good. Monitoring of these plots will be continued until the crop is harvested.

TABLE 4. Growth of Young Teak Stands on Various Soils Under Plantation Management Regime State Soil series Origin Crop age (months) Spacing (m) Average height (m) Diameter (cm)

Selangor Bernam Marine Clay 27 3×4 8.2 10.4
Selangor Bernam Marine Clay 36 2.7×2.7 8.0 9.4
Selangor Bernam Marine Clay 36 2.4×2.4 7.4 7.8
Selangor Nerang Shale 24 3×4 6.4 5.9
Perak Bungor Shale 11 2.4×3 5.3 4.6
Pahang Bungor Shale 6 3×4 1.6 – Kedah Gajah Mati Lateritic shale 30 3×3 6.0

6.2
Kedah Berserah Granite 28 3×4 5.3 4.6
Perlis Rasau Alluvial 23 3×4 7.4 7.5
Perlis Rasau Alluvial 20 3×4 4.7 4.2
Perlis Rasau Alluvial 20 3×4 4.2 3.8
Source: FRIM, unpublished. Note: The source of all seeds was FRIM, Perlis, Malaysia.

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WEATHER
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Temperature and Rainfall

Teak grows best when the minimum monthly temperature is above 13oC and the maximum monthly temperature is below 40oC. Optimal rainfall for teak ranges between 1,250 and 3,750 mm per year; however, for the production of good-quality timber the species requires a dry season of at least four months with less than 60 mm precipitation (Kaosa-ard, 1981).

A report from India (Kondas, 1995) shows that teak responds very well in terms of growth and girth increment in areas where the trees receive at least sufficient moisture for most of the year when compared with growth in monsoon areas.

There is a misconception that annual growth rings, which impart grain structure to the logs, occur only in teak trees growing in zones that have distinct rainy and dry seasons and not in those growing in regions where rainfall is received year round. It is probable that trees grown in zones with a long dry period will have very distinct, closely packed concentric rings owing to the inactivity of the cambium during the long dry spell. However, the growth ring continues to be formed in all climatic conditions, even where there is year-round high rainfall.

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SPACING
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SPACING, THINNING AND PRUNING

In the past much teak was planted with relatively wide spacing of 3×4 m (830 plants), 3.5×3.5 m or 3×3.5 m to test the different sites. Since then the spacing has been reduced to 3×3 m (1,100 plants) so as to obtain straight boles without abundant branching. Spacing of 2×2 m or 2×3 m or up to 1,600 trees per hectare has not been found to add any benifits. Spacing is modified, based on variability in site conditions.

Pruning has also been intensified; it is now begun after the second year. Trees are pruned up to 6 m or two-thirds of the stem height. The objective is the production of high-quality timber, knot- free on the lower part – not biomass without commercial value.

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VALUE
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Prior to harvesting, it will be necessary to decide whether to sell the raw material in log form to local and export markets, or to process it for added value in a sawmill For the moment, processing capacities seem to be higher than raw material supply potential.

During the plantation establishment period, and before thinning is begun on a larger scale, the economic value of plantations can only be evaluated by estimating the accrued commercial value of trees in the growing process.

Our MAI is estimated at a conservative 12 m3 per hectare based on experiences in other locations and in Costa Rica. On some sites an annual growth rate of 20 m3 per hectare or higher has been observed (Camacho, 1998; de Camino, Alfaro and Sage, 1998; Herrera, 1998).

Prices of teak very considerably depending on wood quality and whether you are dealing with plantation grown wood or old growth teak which is very expensive at this point. Our estimates are based on actual market prices of plantation teak(US$350 to $650 per cubic meter free on board [FOB] depending on diameter and wood quality)and are based on recent regional experiences.

Yearly average price of teak logs for girth class of 120 to 150 cm in India (Old growth teak)
Year Price per m3 (Rs) Rs to US$ Ex Rate Price per m3 ($US)

1970 646

7.5000 $86
1971 810 7.4919 $108
1972 963 7.5945 $127
1973 850 7.7420 $110
1974 1,390 8.1016 $172
1975 1,256 8.3759 $150
1976 1,511 8.9604 $169
1977 1,583 8.7386 $193
1978 2,809 8.1928 $343
1979 2,965 8.1258 $365
1980 2,965 7.8629 $377
1981 3,919 8.6585 $452
1982 4,603 9.4551 $487
1983 4,840 10.0989 $479
1984 6,862 11.3626 $604
1985 7,801 12.3687 $630
1986 8,359 12.6108 $663
1987 6,075 12.9615 $469
1988 not available 13.9171 not available
1989 9,964 16.2255 $614
1990 13.449 17.5035 $768
Source: Bebarta (1999).

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Social
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Forest plantation activities have had a role in easing the widespread unemployment in many areas of central America caused by a downswing in the ranching business. Forestry has created employment and trained ranch workers for new tasks as well as increasing the awareness of the local people to many environmental issues such as soil erosion and desegregation. A number of people are employed on a permanent basis in forestry management and working in the nurseries. Many more are employed as occasional workers, most of them as contractors for planting, weeding, pruning and thinning. This has created a new middle class of small family companies which, together with the economic linkage effect, support many families. Tree breeding and forest plantation are seen to be activities of importance for the area’s future. Many landowners, in particular small farmers, are learning about forestry and getting tree planting material to add some long term investment and diversity to their farms. The government has moved to promote reforestation in these countries as they see the long term benefits in the development of this socially and environmentally friendly industry.